A brain supplement is a food supplement formulated to deliver nutrients, amino acids, botanicals, or phospholipids that support normal cognitive function, memory, focus, or mood. Unlike licensed medicines, supplements sold in the UK are regulated as foods — which means their quality, labelling, and marketing claims vary widely between manufacturers.
Choosing a brain supplement well is less about finding the "best" product and more about evaluating any product you encounter against a consistent set of criteria: ingredients with credible evidence, dosages that match clinical studies, transparent labelling, verifiable manufacturing standards, and marketing language that stays within UK regulatory bounds.
Key Takeaways
- Brain supplements in the UK are regulated as foods under the Food Supplements (England) Regulations 2003 — not as medicines — so quality and labelling standards depend largely on the manufacturer rather than on pre-market approval.14
- The ingredients with the strongest cognitive evidence include omega-3 DHA for age-related cognitive decline,3 B-complex vitamins for homocysteine-related cognitive protection,4,6 Bacopa monnieri for memory and attention,1 phosphatidylserine for cognitive support in older adults,5 and L-theanine with caffeine for acute attention.2
- Proprietary blends are a major red flag: they list combined ingredient weights without disclosing per-ingredient doses, which makes it impossible to know whether each component appears at a clinically studied level.
- Standardisation percentages matter for botanicals — "Bacopa 300 mg" is not the same as "Bacopa 300 mg standardised to 45% bacosides" — and the percentage tells you how much of the active fraction the capsule actually contains.
- Third-party testing (heavy metals, microbial contamination, residual solvents) and batch-level Certificates of Analysis are the best external checks on product purity; look for brands that either publish these or release them on request.
- Supplements should complement the foundations of brain health — sleep, nutrition, physical activity, and stress management — rather than replace them. The clinical effect sizes reported in published trials are typically modest, not transformative.
What Is a Brain Supplement, and What Should You Actually Expect From One?
A brain supplement is a food product containing concentrated sources of nutrients or plant-derived compounds, taken in measured doses, with the intended purpose of supporting normal brain function. Under UK law, these products are classified as food supplements — not medicines — which means they cannot claim to treat, cure, or prevent disease, and their active ingredients must stay below thresholds that would classify them as medicinal.14
The UK Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) determines product classification. Even without overt claims, a supplement can be reclassified as a medicine if its pharmacological effect at the labelled dose is significant enough to warrant oversight.15 In practice, this means most branded brain supplements use ingredients and dosages that sit within the food-supplement envelope — gentler, slower-acting, and typically evaluated over weeks rather than hours.
Expectation-setting matters. The cognitive effect sizes reported in peer-reviewed supplement trials are typically small to moderate and often take four to twelve weeks of consistent use to become measurable. No food supplement produces the kind of acute, large-magnitude effect that prescription medications for ADHD, Alzheimer's disease, or depression can produce. A well-chosen supplement at a clinically appropriate dose may offer a modest improvement in attention, memory, or mood resilience — particularly where a nutrient gap or mild deficiency is contributing to symptoms — but it sits alongside, not above, the foundations of sleep, nutrition, exercise, and stress management.
Which Brain Supplement Ingredients Have the Strongest Evidence?
The ingredients with the strongest peer-reviewed evidence for cognitive support include omega-3 fatty acids (particularly DHA), B-complex vitamins, Bacopa monnieri, phosphatidylserine, citicoline, L-theanine combined with caffeine, magnesium (especially magnesium L-threonate), Ginkgo biloba standardised extract, and Lion's mane mushroom. Each has a specific mechanism, a defined effective dose range, and a population in which it has been most thoroughly studied.
Omega-3 DHA. The MIDAS randomised controlled trial supplemented 485 healthy adults aged 55 and older with 900 mg/day of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) for 24 weeks and found significant improvements in episodic memory and learning compared with placebo.3
B-complex vitamins. A comprehensive 2016 review in Nutrients concluded that the B vitamins collectively support energy production, DNA synthesis and repair, methylation, and neurotransmitter synthesis, with strongest cognitive benefit observed when supplementation addresses insufficiency rather than adding to already-adequate status.4 The VITACOG trial further showed that high-dose folic acid, B6, and B12 slowed brain atrophy in adults with mild cognitive impairment — with the strongest effect in those who started with elevated homocysteine.6
Bacopa monnieri. A meta-analysis of nine randomised controlled trials in the Journal of Ethnopharmacology found that chronic dosing of standardised Bacopa extract (typically 300 mg/day for 12 weeks or longer) improved mental processing speed and attention.1
Phosphatidylserine. A three-month placebo-controlled trial in functioning older adults with memory complaints found that 300 mg/day of soy-derived phosphatidylserine combined with 240 mg/day of phosphatidic acid produced measurable improvements in memory and mood.5
Citicoline. In a 28-day placebo-controlled trial in 60 healthy adult women aged 40–60, daily oral citicoline at 250 mg and 500 mg improved measures of attentional inhibition, with the 250 mg dose also improving sustained focus.7
L-theanine with caffeine. A 2008 randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled crossover study by Haskell and colleagues found that 150 mg caffeine combined with 250 mg L-theanine improved attention, working memory reaction time, and sentence verification accuracy beyond caffeine alone, while reducing self-reported tiredness and headache.2
Magnesium L-threonate. A 12-week randomised controlled trial in adults aged 50–70 with cognitive complaints found that a proprietary magnesium L-threonate formulation (MMFS-01) produced a significant improvement in overall cognitive ability, particularly in executive function.9 Earlier mechanistic work in rats demonstrated that magnesium L-threonate specifically raised brain magnesium levels and increased synaptic density in the hippocampus.8
Ginkgo biloba. A 2010 systematic review and meta-analysis of nine trials using the standardised extract EGb761 (usually standardised to 24% flavone glycosides and 6% terpene lactones) found modest improvements in cognition in people with dementia.10 Evidence in healthy adults is weaker.
Lion's mane. A small 16-week placebo-controlled trial in older Japanese adults with mild cognitive impairment found that 3 g/day of Hericium erinaceus dry powder significantly improved cognitive function scores compared with placebo.11
What Should You Look For on a Brain Supplement Label?
A high-quality brain supplement label makes it possible to compare the product directly against the clinical evidence. The essential disclosures are: full ingredient list with per-dose quantities in milligrams or micrograms, standardisation percentages for every botanical, specific chemical form for each nutrient, batch or lot number, best-before date, manufacturer name and address within the UK or EU, and allergen information.
Full quantitative disclosure. Every active ingredient should list its exact dose per serving, not just its presence in a blend. If the label says "Cognitive Blend 500 mg — Bacopa, Ginkgo, Rhodiola", you have no way of knowing whether you are getting 50 mg of Bacopa and 400 mg of a cheaper filler, or 300 mg of Bacopa at a clinically studied dose.
Standardisation percentages. For botanicals, the active fraction matters more than the total weight. A 300 mg Bacopa capsule standardised to 45% bacosides contains 135 mg of the active alkaloid complex; a 300 mg Bacopa capsule with no standardisation stated may contain far less. Standardisation benchmarks worth recognising include Bacopa 45–55% bacosides, Ginkgo biloba 24% flavone glycosides and 6% terpene lactones, Rhodiola rosea 3% rosavins and 1% salidrosides, and Ashwagandha 5% withanolides.
Nutrient forms. The form of a vitamin or mineral affects absorption. Vitamin B12 as methylcobalamin is generally preferred over cyanocobalamin for neurological support; folate as L-methylfolate is better absorbed by people with MTHFR variants than synthetic folic acid; magnesium L-threonate crosses the blood–brain barrier more efficiently than magnesium oxide in animal studies;8 and citicoline is typically listed as Cognizin or CDP-choline.
Batch traceability. A visible batch number and best-before date indicate that the manufacturer operates under good manufacturing practice, where every bottle can be traced to a specific production run and, if necessary, recalled.
Manufacturer contact details. UK and EU law requires a legible manufacturer or responsible-person address on the label. A product without this information may be sold outside the regulatory framework you are protected by.
Allergen declarations. Soy, egg, milk, fish, shellfish, and tree nut sources must be declared. This matters particularly for phosphatidylserine (often soy- or sunflower-derived), omega-3 (fish or algal), and choline (often egg-derived).
What Are the Red Flags to Avoid When Buying Brain Supplements?
Several marketing and labelling patterns indicate a product that is either poorly formulated or is likely to fail UK advertising standards. Proprietary blends that hide individual doses, superlative marketing language, unauthorised disease-treatment claims, missing batch information, and the absence of any third-party testing are the most consistent signals of a product to avoid.
Proprietary blends. Any label that groups multiple active ingredients under a single total weight should be treated with suspicion. Manufacturers use this pattern when individual doses are below clinically studied levels and they do not want the consumer to see the shortfall.
Superlative and absolute claims. Phrases such as "miracle", "revolutionary", "breakthrough", "guaranteed results", or "clinically proven" without a specific cited trial are prohibited in UK supplement advertising under the CAP Code and, in medicinal contexts, under the Human Medicines Regulations 2012.16 The UK Advertising Standards Authority has taken a particularly strict line on unsubstantiated cognitive claims since 2024.16
Disease-treatment claims. A food supplement sold in the UK cannot legally claim to treat, cure, or prevent any disease — including depression, anxiety, dementia, Alzheimer's disease, ADHD, or insomnia. Products or advertisements that make these claims are operating outside the law, which tells you something about the manufacturer's overall standards.
Missing dose or form information. If a label lists "vitamin B12" without specifying the form, or "magnesium" without specifying the salt, the manufacturer has either not paid attention to bioavailability or does not want you comparing their formulation to higher-quality alternatives.
No third-party testing mentioned. Brands that invest in third-party verification usually advertise it — via seals, Certificates of Analysis, or explicit statements about independent laboratory testing. Silence on this point is not proof of low quality, but it does remove one of the main external checks you can rely on.
Missing batch numbers or manufacturer address. Products sold through unregulated online channels often skip these. In the UK market, their absence is a strong indication that the product has not gone through standard supply-chain compliance.
Unverifiable celebrity endorsements and "before and after" imagery. Cognitive claims cannot be illustrated with before-and-after imagery under the CAP Code, and celebrity endorsements of supplements without independent clinical substantiation are routinely challenged by the ASA.16
How Do You Match a Brain Supplement to Your Goal?
Matching a brain supplement to your primary cognitive goal means choosing ingredients whose clinical evidence aligns with the outcome you are trying to support — rather than selecting a broad-spectrum formula at random. The four most common goals are focus and attention, memory and learning, mood and stress resilience, and long-term brain protection.
Focus and attention. The strongest acute-effect evidence sits with L-theanine combined with caffeine (150 mg caffeine + 250 mg L-theanine),2 citicoline (250–500 mg daily),7 and adaptogens such as rhodiola rosea. These act over minutes to weeks rather than months. For people sensitive to caffeine, citicoline and rhodiola offer non-stimulant alternatives. For a deeper look at the supporting evidence, see our guide to cognitive performance.
Memory and learning. The strongest memory evidence sits with chronic Bacopa monnieri supplementation (300 mg/day standardised extract for 12+ weeks),1 phosphatidylserine (300 mg/day with phosphatidic acid)5 in older adults with memory complaints, and omega-3 DHA (900 mg/day) for age-related cognitive decline.3 These ingredients act over weeks to months through effects on cellular membranes, neurotransmitter systems, and synaptic plasticity. See the memory and learning guide for the underlying mechanisms.
Mood and stress resilience. B-complex vitamins support neurotransmitter synthesis and homocysteine regulation;4 magnesium supports over 300 enzymatic reactions including those involved in stress response; and adaptogens such as rhodiola rosea and ashwagandha have moderate evidence for reducing subjective stress ratings over several weeks. 5-HTP is sometimes used for mood support but should not be combined with antidepressants, given the risk of serotonin accumulation. Our mood and emotional wellbeing guide covers the neurochemistry in depth.
Long-term brain protection. Omega-3 DHA, a Mediterranean-style dietary pattern, and homocysteine-lowering B vitamins have the strongest long-term evidence.3,4,6 In adults over 60 with elevated homocysteine, high-dose folic acid, B6, and B12 slowed accelerated brain atrophy in the VITACOG randomised controlled trial.6 For adults without deficiency, broader dietary patterns typically outperform isolated supplementation for long-term protection. See the long-term brain health guide and the brain nutrition guide for the dietary framework.
How Important Are Manufacturing Quality and Third-Party Testing?
Manufacturing quality and third-party testing are the two most reliable external signals of a brain supplement's actual contents. A well-designed formula on paper means little if the capsule you receive contains contaminants, under-dosed active ingredients, or a different species of the botanical claimed on the label.
Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP). In the UK and EU, supplement manufacturers are expected to operate under food GMP standards overseen by the Food Standards Agency and local Trading Standards authorities.14 GMP covers facility hygiene, ingredient traceability, batch documentation, and quality control testing. Look for statements such as "manufactured in a GMP-certified facility" on the label or the manufacturer's website.
Third-party testing. Independent laboratory testing verifies three things the manufacturer's own testing cannot: heavy metal content (lead, mercury, cadmium, arsenic), microbial contamination (bacteria, yeast, mould), and residual solvents from the extraction process. A full-panel Certificate of Analysis (COA) covers each of these, typically reporting "ND" (none detected) or a specific numerical value below the regulatory limit.
What to ask for. A reputable brain supplement brand will either publish batch-level COAs on its website or provide them on request within a few working days. A brand that cannot or will not share a COA has removed one of the most useful consumer safeguards.
Country of manufacture. UK and EU manufacture implies oversight by the Food Standards Agency or equivalent EU competent authorities. Products manufactured outside the UK and EU are not necessarily lower quality — but the regulatory chain back to the consumer is longer, and complaint escalation is harder.
ISO and additional certifications. ISO 22000 (food safety management), ISO 9001 (quality management), and specific certifications such as Informed Sport (for products used by athletes subject to drug testing) are additional — not substitute — signals of quality.
How Do the Main Brain Supplement Categories Compare?
The following table summarises the main brain supplement categories, their primary cognitive targets, typical clinical dose ranges, the populations in which they have been most thoroughly studied, and the overall strength of the current evidence.
| Ingredient Category | Primary Cognitive Target | Typical Clinical Dose | Population Studied | Evidence Strength |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Omega-3 DHA (fish or algal) | Memory, age-related decline | 900 mg/day DHA | Adults 55+ with cognitive decline3 | Strong |
| B-complex (B6, B9, B12) | Long-term atrophy, mood | Tailored to deficiency | MCI with elevated homocysteine6 | Strong (where homocysteine elevated) |
| Bacopa monnieri (standardised 45–55% bacosides) | Memory, attention, processing speed | 300 mg/day, 12+ weeks | Healthy adults and older adults1 | Moderate–strong |
| Phosphatidylserine | Memory in older adults | 100–300 mg/day | Older adults with memory complaints5 | Moderate |
| Citicoline | Attention, focus | 250–500 mg/day | Healthy adult women 40–607 | Moderate |
| L-theanine + caffeine | Acute attention, alertness | 200 mg L-theanine + 100–200 mg caffeine | Healthy adults2 | Moderate |
| Magnesium L-threonate | Cognitive ability, executive function | 1.5–2 g/day (elemental ~144 mg) | Adults 50–70 with cognitive complaints9 | Moderate (emerging) |
| Ginkgo biloba (EGb761, 24/6) | Cognition in dementia | 120–240 mg/day | Adults with dementia10 | Moderate (dementia), Weak (healthy) |
| Lion's mane (Hericium erinaceus) | MCI, cognitive function scores | 3 g/day dry powder | Older adults with MCI11 | Emerging |
| Vitamin D | Cognition in deficiency states | 1000–2000 IU/day (tailored) | Older adults12 | Moderate (observational), Weak (supplementation) |
| Choline / alpha-GPC | Memory, acetylcholine support | 250–600 mg/day | Mixed populations13 | Moderate (nutritional), Emerging (cognitive) |
Are Brain Supplements Safe, and Who Should Avoid Them?
Brain supplements are generally well tolerated at the doses used in clinical trials, but several categories interact with commonly prescribed medicines or are unsuitable during specific life stages. Pregnancy, breastfeeding, anticoagulant or antidepressant therapy, and known bleeding disorders are the most important circumstances in which professional advice should be sought before starting any brain supplement.
Pregnancy and breastfeeding. Most brain supplement ingredients have not been specifically studied in pregnancy. Omega-3 DHA at food-supplement doses and standard B-complex vitamins are generally considered appropriate; botanicals including Bacopa monnieri, Ginkgo biloba, Rhodiola rosea, and Ashwagandha are typically not recommended without medical advice.
Anticoagulants and antiplatelets. Ginkgo biloba has a known interaction with warfarin, aspirin, and other blood-thinning medicines because it reduces platelet aggregation. High-dose omega-3 (above roughly 3 g/day combined EPA + DHA) can produce similar effects. Adults on anticoagulant therapy should consult their GP or pharmacist before starting either.
Antidepressants and serotonergic medicines. 5-HTP and St John's wort both affect serotonin signalling. Combining them with SSRIs, SNRIs, MAOIs, or tramadol can raise the risk of serotonin syndrome — a potentially serious medical emergency. These combinations should only be considered under specialist supervision.
Thyroid medication. Bacopa monnieri has been shown to affect thyroid hormone levels in some rodent studies; people on levothyroxine or with active thyroid disease should discuss with their GP before long-term use.
Sedatives and sleep medications. Melatonin, L-theanine, and magnesium can have mild additive effects with prescription sedatives. This is rarely dangerous at food-supplement doses but should be factored in if the medication itself is causing daytime drowsiness.
Children and adolescents. Most brain supplement ingredients have not been studied in children. Nutritional adequacy — through diet or paediatric-specific multivitamins — is a safer first step. Any supplementation in under-18s should be decided with a paediatrician or GP.
General principle. Always tell your GP or pharmacist about every supplement you take, particularly before surgery (many affect bleeding) and when starting a new prescription medication. The NHS general advice is that most healthy adults do not require supplementation beyond vitamin D in autumn and winter — any beyond that should be targeted to a specific, evidence-based purpose.
How Can You Evaluate Claims and Marketing on a Supplement Package?
Evaluating supplement marketing in the UK means knowing which health claims are authorised, which are not, and what language manufacturers use to sit on the borderline between the two. The EU Register of authorised nutrition and health claims — retained by the UK post-Brexit as the GB Register — lists the exact claims each nutrient is permitted to make, the conditions of use, and the wording allowed.14
Authorised claims are nutrient-specific and conditional. For example, pantothenic acid may claim to "contribute to normal mental performance" only if the product provides at least 15% of the Nutrient Reference Value per daily portion. Vitamin B6, folate, B12, niacin, thiamine, biotin, iron, iodine, and zinc have similar authorised wording for "contributing to normal cognitive function" or "reducing tiredness and fatigue" — each with its own minimum nutrient threshold.
Botanical claims have limited authorisation. No specific health claim has been authorised under the GB Register for Bacopa monnieri, Ginkgo biloba, Rhodiola rosea, Lion's mane, or most other botanicals marketed for cognitive support. This does not mean the ingredients lack evidence — it means the evidence has not yet been formally assessed and approved under the regulation. Manufacturers who make cognitive claims for these ingredients must either frame them carefully ("traditionally used for...") or rely on the restricted "on hold" claims status for botanicals, which is itself under ongoing legal review.
"Clinically studied" does not mean "clinically proven". A product can legitimately state that an ingredient has been studied in a clinical trial, but it cannot claim that the product itself will produce the clinical outcome unless the full product has been tested in a human trial. Check whether any cited trial actually used the product in your hand — not just the headline ingredient.
Read the reference, not just the claim. Many packaging designs cite a study to support an implied benefit. The question to ask is: did that study test the same dose, the same standardisation, and the same population as the product's intended consumer? A rodent study on isolated cells does not support a claim for human cognition; a trial in older adults with dementia does not support a claim for healthy young professionals.
Trust the boring language. "May support normal cognitive function" is a more honest claim than "Proven to supercharge your mind". The first is an authorised EFSA claim at the right nutrient level; the second is marketing language that, under UK advertising standards, would likely be challenged.16
Frequently Asked Questions
How long does it take for a brain supplement to work?
Acute effects from ingredients such as caffeine with L-theanine appear within 30–60 minutes.2 Ingredients that work through longer-term cellular mechanisms — Bacopa monnieri, phosphatidylserine, omega-3 DHA, B vitamins — typically take four to twelve weeks of consistent daily use before any change is measurable in clinical trials.1,3,5 If you do not notice any difference after eight to twelve weeks at a clinically studied dose, the ingredient is unlikely to help you specifically.
Can I take multiple brain supplements together?
Many brain supplement ingredients can be taken together safely — B-complex, magnesium, omega-3, and phosphatidylserine, for example, do not have known interactions. However, combining multiple stimulant or serotonergic ingredients raises interaction risks. If you are stacking ingredients, avoid layering several caffeine sources, and never combine 5-HTP or St John's wort with prescription antidepressants without specialist advice.
Are natural brain supplements safer than synthetic ones?
Not automatically. "Natural" and "safe" are different properties. Some of the best-tolerated brain supplement ingredients — standardised B vitamins, synthetic L-theanine, purified phosphatidylserine — are produced in the laboratory to defined purity standards, and their safety profile is often better characterised than that of botanical extracts, where species identification and contamination can vary between batches. Focus on evidence, dose, and manufacturing quality rather than on "natural" versus "synthetic".
Do brain supplements help healthy young adults, or only older people?
Most clinical evidence for cognitive supplements has been generated in older adults, adults with mild cognitive impairment, or adults under specific stressors (sleep deprivation, shift work, high cognitive load). Evidence in healthy young adults without cognitive complaints is weaker. For most healthy adults under 40 without a specific deficiency, the foundations of sleep, nutrition, exercise, and stress management deliver larger cognitive benefits than any supplement.
What is the difference between a food supplement and a medicine in the UK?
A food supplement is a concentrated source of nutrients or other ingredients with a nutritional or physiological effect, taken in a measured dose and regulated as a food.14 A medicine is authorised by the MHRA to treat, cure, or prevent disease. The classification depends on the ingredient, its dose, and the claims made. A product can be reclassified as a medicine if its pharmacological effect is significant at the labelled dose.15 Licensed medicines go through pre-market approval; food supplements do not.
Should I take a brain supplement every day or only when I need it?
The answer depends on the ingredient. Chronic-effect ingredients (Bacopa, phosphatidylserine, omega-3 DHA, B vitamins) require daily consistent use over weeks to months to reach a therapeutic effect, and stopping and restarting resets the timeline.1,3,5 Acute-effect ingredients (caffeine, L-theanine, citicoline in some contexts) can be taken as needed. A well-formulated daily brain supplement combines chronic-action ingredients at maintenance doses.
How do I know if I actually need a brain supplement?
The strongest case for supplementation exists when there is a specific, identifiable gap — measured nutrient deficiency (B12, iron, vitamin D, folate), a known elevated homocysteine level, or a dietary pattern that excludes key foods (vegan diets are often low in choline, B12, and long-chain omega-3s).6,13 For adults eating a varied diet with good sleep, regular exercise, and no specific symptoms, foundational lifestyle measures typically deliver larger gains than supplementation.
Supporting Your Brain Health with BrainSmart
BrainSmart's range of brain health supplements is formulated to support cognitive function, memory, focus, and mood through evidence-based ingredients at clinically studied dosages.
Explore our range: BrainSmart Ultra for comprehensive brain support, BrainSmart Focus for concentration and mental clarity, BrainSmart Memory for memory and recall, and BrainSmart Mood for emotional wellbeing and stress.
Related Reading
Explore the rest of the BrainSmart Knowledge Centre for deeper coverage of the ingredients, mechanisms, and strategies discussed in this guide.
- The Complete Guide to Cognitive Performance
The pillar guide to focus, processing speed, and mental sharpness — the baseline science underlying the focus-and-attention category above.
- Memory and Learning Guide
How memory works and what supports it — the mechanistic foundation for Bacopa, phosphatidylserine, and DHA's memory effects.
- Mood, Stress, and Your Brain
The emotional wellbeing pillar, including B vitamins, magnesium, and adaptogens for stress resilience.
- Protecting Your Brain: Long-Term Cognitive Health
Evidence-based strategies for cognitive longevity — where omega-3 DHA and homocysteine-lowering B vitamins fit into the larger picture.
- Brain Nutrition: The Essential Guide
Foods, nutrients, and dietary patterns for the brain — the "food-first" foundation behind every supplement decision discussed here.
- Brain Fog: Causes, Science, and Evidence-Based Solutions
When cognitive symptoms have a specific underlying driver — and how to rule those out before reaching for a supplement.
- BrainSmart Knowledge Centre
Browse all articles, ingredient deep-dives, and evidence guides.
- Tom Kaplan — Brain Health Writer
About the author and full bibliography.
References
- Kongkeaw C, Dilokthornsakul P, Thanarangsarit P, Limpeanchob N, Scholfield CN. Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials on cognitive effects of Bacopa monnieri extract. J Ethnopharmacol. 2014;151(1):528-535. doi:10.1016/j.jep.2013.11.008
- Haskell CF, Kennedy DO, Milne AL, Wesnes KA, Scholey AB. The effects of L-theanine, caffeine and their combination on cognition and mood. Biol Psychol. 2008;77(2):113-122. doi:10.1016/j.biopsycho.2007.09.008
- Yurko-Mauro K, McCarthy D, Rom D, et al. Beneficial effects of docosahexaenoic acid on cognition in age-related cognitive decline. Alzheimers Dement. 2010;6(6):456-464. doi:10.1016/j.jalz.2010.01.013
- Kennedy DO. B vitamins and the brain: mechanisms, dose and efficacy — a review. Nutrients. 2016;8(2):68. doi:10.3390/nu8020068
- Moré MI, Freitas U, Rutenberg D. Positive effects of soy lecithin-derived phosphatidylserine plus phosphatidic acid on memory, cognition, daily functioning, and mood in elderly patients with Alzheimer's disease and dementia. Adv Ther. 2014;31(12):1247-1262. doi:10.1007/s12325-014-0165-1
- Smith AD, Smith SM, de Jager CA, et al. Homocysteine-lowering by B vitamins slows the rate of accelerated brain atrophy in mild cognitive impairment: a randomized controlled trial. PLoS One. 2010;5(9):e12244. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0012244
- McGlade E, Locatelli A, Hardy J, et al. Improved attentional performance following citicoline administration in healthy adult women. Food Nutr Sci. 2012;3(6):769-773. doi:10.4236/fns.2012.36103
- Slutsky I, Abumaria N, Wu LJ, et al. Enhancement of learning and memory by elevating brain magnesium. Neuron. 2010;65(2):165-177. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2009.12.026
- Liu G, Weinger JG, Lu ZL, Xue F, Sadeghpour S. Efficacy and safety of MMFS-01, a synapse density enhancer, for treating cognitive impairment in older adults: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. J Alzheimers Dis. 2016;49(4):971-990. doi:10.3233/JAD-150538
- Weinmann S, Roll S, Schwarzbach C, Vauth C, Willich SN. Effects of Ginkgo biloba in dementia: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Geriatr. 2010;10:14. doi:10.1186/1471-2318-10-14
- Mori K, Inatomi S, Ouchi K, Azumi Y, Tuchida T. Improving effects of the mushroom Yamabushitake (Hericium erinaceus) on mild cognitive impairment: a double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial. Phytother Res. 2009;23(3):367-372. doi:10.1002/ptr.2634
- Goodwill AM, Szoeke C. A systematic review and meta-analysis of the effect of low vitamin D on cognition. J Am Geriatr Soc. 2017;65(10):2161-2168. doi:10.1111/jgs.15012
- Derbyshire E. Could we be overlooking a potential choline crisis in the United Kingdom? BMJ Nutr Prev Health. 2019;2(2):86-89. doi:10.1136/bmjnph-2019-000037
- UK Government. Nutrition legislation information sheet. GOV.UK. Updated 2024. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/nutrition-legislation-information-sources/nutrition-legislation-information-sheet--2
- Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency. A guide to what is a medicinal product (MHRA Guidance Note 8). Updated 2023. https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/a-guide-to-what-is-a-medicinal-product
- Advertising Standards Authority / Committee of Advertising Practice. Health: Food supplements — CAP Code guidance and rulings. Accessed April 2026. https://www.asa.org.uk/advice-online/health-food-and-food-supplements-general.html
Author
Tom Kaplan
Brain Health Writer at BrainSmart
Tom Kaplan is a specialist health writer focused on cognitive health, brain nutrition, and evidence-based approaches to supporting mental performance across the lifespan. His work draws on peer-reviewed research across neuroscience, nutritional psychiatry, and cognitive psychology — translating complex clinical findings into clear, practical guidance that helps readers make informed decisions about their brain health. Read Full Bio →